Critical study of Microsporidia and other single-celled, obligate intracellular, eukaryotic parasites The WritePass Journal

Critical study of Microsporidia and other single-celled, obligate intracellular, eukaryotic parasites Introduction Critical study of Microsporidia and other single-celled, obligate intracellular, eukaryotic parasites IntroductionDiscovery and classificationMicrosporidia in FishDevelopmental cycleSpore morphologyRationaleMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussion ReferencesRelated Introduction Microsporidia are single-celled, obligate intracellular, eukaryotic parasites which infect a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate hosts (Canning Lom 1986; Lom Dykova 1992; Desportes-Livage 2000 and Shaw Kent 1999). Amongst their hosts are a range of animal species such as rodents, rabbits, primates (including humans) but the most common hosts are insects and fish. Microsporidia belong to the phylum Microspora which are characterised by the production of infective spores which possess an elaborate extrusion apparatus (Weiss 2001). Identification of microsporidia up to the genus level is based on their ultrastructural characteristics and electron microscopy (EM) is considered the gold standard technique for species identification (Lom and Dykova 1992). Discovery and classification Microsporidia were discovered in 1857 and over 1200 species are known to date (Shaw Kent 1999). 156 species infect fish and these fall within 14 genera (Table 1) (reviewed in Lom 2002; Lom Nilsen 2003). Originally, Microsporidia were considered to be protozoa but they have been, not far long ago, reclassified as fungi in the general phylum Microsporidia (Keeling Fast 2002 and Sprague Becnel 1998). Possession of a chitin spore wall by microsporidia potentially links them to fungi. They are considered to be true eukaryotes because they have a membrane-bound nucleus, intra-cytoplasmic membrane system and chromosome separation on mitotic spindles. However, they have a less complex and smaller genome than other eukaryotes (Garcia 2002; Keeling 2009). Microsporidia in Fish Fish become infected with microsporidia when they ingest spores from other infected fish, that is to say, by direct per oral transmission (Dykova 1995). The parasites then invade the host cell’s cytoplasm and eventually displace the nucleus and other organelles during their course of development. The cytoplasm is reduced to a thin layer around the parasites. The host cell surrounds the parasites with mitochondria too, from which the latter obtains energy. Formation of large hypertrophic cells known as xenomas (Fig. 1) ensues (Lom Nilsen 2003). These cells can reach sizes of 400 – 500  µm and can be seen grossly as white cysts (Matthews Matthews 1980 and Ralphs Matthews 1986). Xenomas, cyst-like structures, comprise the hypertrophic host cell contents together with Microsporidia at multiple stages of development (Lom Dykova 2005). A symbiotic relationship develops between the parasite and host, which exhibit physiological integration. This helps the host to confine the parasites in only the infected cells, thereby limiting their spread to other cells and tissues. The parasites are provided with optimal growth conditions reminiscent of a culture tube in addition to protection from host immune attacks, since they are masked with host component (Lom Dykova 1992). Figure 1: Xenomas in the body cavity of the golden orfe. Figure 1: Large hypertrophic cells (xenomas) in the body cavity of the golden orfe. (Picture provided by Dr. R. Kirk, Kingston University London). Xenomas cause wasting of fish tissue leading to huge losses in catch value as well as reduced growth rates. Some cause serious lesions which result into the demise of infected fish when they destroy the host cells (Lom Dykova 1992). Microsporidiosis is considered to be a chronic lethal infection by Shaw and Kent 1999. Dykova and Lom (1978) stated that not all fish Microsporidia species cause xenomas. 9 out of the 14 genera of fish Microsporidia cause xenomas in table (1). Table 1: Microsporidia genera and their fish hosts. Microsporidia genus Fish host Glugea Stickleback, pond smelt, flounder, ayu Heterosporis Japanese eel, Jewel cichlid Ichthyosporidium Corkwing wrasse Kabatana Chinook, Masu, sockeye pink salmon; rainbow trout Loma Atlantic cod; haddock; pink, Coho, red, dog, sockeye Chinook salmon; rainbow trout Microfilum Lutjanus fulgens (Teleost) Microgemma Greater sand-eel Microsporidium Coho, red, dog Chinook salmon; rainbow trout; nilem; shiped catfish Neonosemoides Cichlid, tilapia Nosemoides Cichlid Nucleospora Salmon, Atlantic halibut Ovipleistophora Golden shiner, European chub Pleistophora Salmon, bream, pacific cod, turbot, roach Tetramicra Turbot Table 1. The 14 known genera of Microsporidia that infect fish (reviewed in Lom 2002; Lom Nilsen 2003), of which 9 (shown in red) cause xenomas in their hosts (reviewed in Lom 2002; Lom Dykova 2005). Developmental cycle Microsporidia undergo a complicated life cycle which involves merogony or schizogony and sporogony. Merogony is the proliferative stage during which numerous parasites are produced by binary or multiple fission whereas sporogony involves the production of mature spores. Both stages take place inside the host cell (Lom Dykova 1992). Initially, the sporoplasm is extruded by breakage and eversion of the polar tube through the thinnest apical part of the spore, with a build up of high pressure inside the spore being the driving force behind this mechanism. The polar tube pierces the host cell and literally injects the sporoplasm into it. This marks the start of development within the host (Lom Dykova 1992). Generally Microsporidia are small organisms and the largest developmental stages measure up to 50  µm (Dykova 1995). Spore morphology The spore (Fig. 2)is the infectious stage of Microsporidia, and the only stage viable outside of the host, due to possession of a tough outer wall. The spore wall is solid, occurs in one piece and consists of a thin outer glycoproteinous exospore and a thick inner chitin endospore. Spores occur in different shapes such as rod-shaped and spherical but oval or ellipsoidal are the most common. They measure between 3 and 10  µm in length and possess an elaborate hatching apparatus. The polaroplast, polar filament and posterior vacuole are the three most important parts of the spore involved in infection (Lom Dykova 1992; Dykova 1995). The spore has a very intricate morphology (Canning Lom 1986), but the most conspicuous part is the polar tube which extends obliquely from the anchoring disc at the anterior end to the posterior end of the spore, where it coils beneath the spore wall. A single or diplokaryon nucleus occurs in the sporoplasm between the polaroplast and the posterior vacu ole (Dykova 1995). Figure 2: A generalised diagram of a Microsporidia spore. Figure 2: Diagram of an oval-shaped spore showing a diprokaryon nucleus, the wall and other components involved in infection such as the polar tube and posterior vacuole (picture obtained from). Rationale Microsporidia have a huge impact on aquaculture since they cause severe diseases in fish, resulting in a reduction in the growth of fish stocks and productivity in the fish farming sector (Lom Dykova 1992; Dykova 1995). The economic significance of Microsporidia has therefore promoted extensive research into the pathology that they cause to their hosts (Lom 2002). This research project was conducted with the aim of investigating the nature and the extent of damage caused by xenomas in fish and the host’s response to infection (microsporidiosis) using histological techniques and light microscopy, as well as identifying the Microsporidia species infecting the golden orfe. Since there is limited research on Microsporidia, this would help provide more information regarding their pathology which could consequently be vital in controlling the impact they have on fish farming Materials and Methods Fish (golden orfe) obtained from a pond at Burton Bradstock in Dorset were dissected to remove gill and body cavity tissues infected with Microsporidia. These were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 48 hours and stored in industrial methylated spirit (IMS). The gill tissue was then decalcified overnight in Osteosoft (Merck, Germany) and again stored in 70% IMS. The tissues were then dehydrated in a series of alcohol of ascending concentrations, embedded in wax and serially sectioned at 5 to 10  µm (appendix 1). Staining with Masson’s tricrhome (appendix 2) was done before examining the sections using light microscopy (phase contrast). Image analysis technique was used to critically examine the stained sections in order to identify and evaluate the histopathological changes caused by Microsporidia. Results Initial macroscopic examination of the fish revealed compression of the organs of the body cavity by the xenomas; cyst-like structures which occur as circular or ovoid lumps (figure 1). Histological examination of the stained serial sections of the body cavity tissue revealed the localisation of the cysts (xenomas) mostly with in the subepithelial connective tissue of the gut (figure 3a). In many sections, the cysts were seen to occur in large numbers and in close proximity with one another (figure 3b). This was an indication that the body cavity tissues, and the fish in general, were heavily infected. The cysts appeared to be intact and were surrounded by a continuous membrane (figures 3b 4). This showed confinement of Microsporidia parasites within the infected hypertrophied cell. The xenomas contained large numbers of parasites which appeared to be at different stages of development (figure 4), for example meronts and spores. The merogonial stages of development were seen as whitish round or amorphous masses within the cysts. However, individual meronts could not be discerned (figure 4). The Microsporidia spores, which stained deep red with Masson’s trichrome (Joseph et al. 2006), were evident within the entire xenoma (figure 4). Unfortunately, the internal morphology of the spores could not be examined with light microscopy. Host cell organelles such as nuclei were not observed, as these were probably displaced by the developing parasites. Secondary xenomas, cysts developing within another cyst, were also seen and these too contained developing parasites (figure 6). This was an indication that the xenomas were developing or mature. Fibroblasts were observed within the connective tissue surrounding the xenomas (figure 5). These, presumably, played a role in laying down blue-staining collagen fibres around the xenomas as part of the inflammatory response from the host towards the parasites, which is known as a granulomatous response (figure 7). Unfortunately, no xenomas were found within the gills on histological examination, even though cysts were observed before the tissues were removed from the fish. This could have been due to destruction of these cysts, which were probably young, during surgical removal and/or chemical processing of the tissues. Telangiectasis (gill lamellar dilations) was observed in some slides, on closer examination, but this was not to be mistaken for xenomas. These observations were also made by other authors such as Abdel-Ghaffar et al. (2011); Gandhi, Locatelli Feist (1995) and Peyghan et al. (2009) Discussion Microsporidia infect a variety of marine and fresh water fish. This study used the fresh water ornamental fish, the golden orfe (Leuciscus idus), to examine the histopathological effect that Microsporidia have on fish in general. However, there is not much research that has been carried out regarding the histopathological effect that microsporidia have on golden orfe. The xenomas (cyst-like structures) observed grossly within the body cavity of the fish were generally spherical, as was noted by Matos et al (2003) too. They presumably exerted pressure onto the organs involved in feeding such as the gut, liver and intestines, hence impairing their vital functions (Ralphs Matthews 1986). This not only led to morphological modifications but also functional failure due to thickening of the gut wall and eventual occlusion of the lumen. This may be the limiting factor which affects growth in the infected fish and the indirect cause of their death (Dykova 1995). Occurrence of xenomas in large numbers and close proximity to each other (as seen in figure 3b) was suggestive of a heavy infection, which resulted in the death of the fish. This is in agreement with Lom Dykova (1992) who stated that Microsporidia provoke severe disease in wild and farmed fish populations causing major losses. According to the observations made in this study, parasites at different stages of development occurred within the xenomas. Merogonial stages which appeared as white masses and deep red staining spores were seen inside the xenomas which were surrounded by a continuous membrane. The parasites were confined within these cyst-like structures inside infected cells and this limited their spread to other tissues within the host. This mechanism is used by the host to control the infection. However, the parasites use it too as a means of evading recognition and destruction by the host’s immune cells such as macrophages, as stated by Lom Dykova (1992). The parasites replace the cell organelles and cause hypertrophy of the infected cell, before destroying it. The host cell type is difficult to recognise following transformation into a xenoma (Dykova 1995). The xenoma and its components are morphologically and physiologically integrated to from a separate entity which develops at the ex pense of the host (Lom Dykova 2005). The observation of a granulomatous reaction, a process achieved by fibroblasts laying down collagen fibres around the xenoma wall, is a type of host response towards the parasite and is in agreement with observations made by Lom and Dykova (1992, 2005) and Shaw Kent (1999). One of the demerits of this study was that the morphology of the spores was vague and their internal structures could not be examined well enough, due to the low resolving power of the light microscope. This rendered identification of the Microsporidia species infecting the fish studied in this study impossible. Lom Dykova (1992) stated that identification of Microsporidia was based on the ultrastructural features of the spores and/or the characteristic cell structure of the developmental stages, for example the polar tube. Electron microscopy is the gold-standard method to use in species identification of Microsporidia. In addition to this, Masson’s trichrome stain However, this study showed that Microsporidia infection in fish led to hypertrophy of infected cells, with the formation of the xenomas. These observations concur with those of Lom Dykova (1992); Lom Nilsen (2003) and other researchers, for example, Abdel-Ghaffar et al. (2011); Gandhi, Locatelli Feist (1995) and Peyghan et al. (2009). From the commercial point of view, Microsporidia are considered parasites of significant importance by Lom Dykova (1992) and Dykova (1995) who stated that microsporidia infection reduced the growth of fish stocks which resulted in losses within the fish sector. Currently, not much research has been done in regard to the histopathological effect that Microsporidia cause to their fish hosts, and other animals in general and therefore a lot more remains to be learnt about these pathogens. Fields that require much more extensive research include the mechanisms by which xenomas are formed and the nature of the xenomas, how the parasites evade the host immune system, invasion of host cells by parasites using their extrusion apparatus, host response towards infection, not to mention but a few. Lom (2002) proposed that a detailed knowledge of fish Microsporidia morphology and their taxonomy would greatly facilitate species determination. This would help provide vital information that would be used to design and produce drugs in order to reduce the impact that Microsporidia have on agriculture and aquaculture. References Abdel-Ghaffar, F., Bashtar, AR., Mehlhorn, H., AL-Rasheid, K. and Morsy, K. (2011) Microsporidian parasites: a danger facing marine fishes of the Red Sea. Parasitology Research 108, 219 – 225. Canning, E. and Lom, J. (1986) The microsporidia of vertebrates. Academic Press, New York and London, pp 289. Desportes-Livage, I., 2000. Biology of microsporidia. Contributions to Microbiology 6, 140–165. Dykova, I. and Lom, J. (1978) Tissue reaction of the three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus L. to infection with Glugea anomala (Moniez, 1887). Journal of Fish Diseases 1, 83 – 90. Dykova, I. (1995) Phylum Microspora. In: Woo, P.T.K., editor: Fish diseases and disorders. Protozoan and Metazoan Infections. Wallingford: CAB International, pp 149 – 176. Garcia, L.S. (2002) Laboratory Identification of the Microsporidia. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40 (6), 1892 – 1901. Ghandi, S., Locatelli, L. and Feist, S.W. (1995) Occurrence of Loma sp. (Microsporidia) in farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) at a site in south west England. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists 15(2), 58 – 60. Keeling, P. (2009) Five questions about microsporidia. PLoS Pathogens 5 (9), e1000489. Keeling, P.J. and Fast, N.M. (2002) Microsporidia: Biology and Evolution of Highly Reduced Intracellular Parasites. Annual Review of Microbiology 56, 93 – 116. Lom, J. and Dykova, I. (1992) Protozoan Parasites of Fishes. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V, pp 125 154. Lom, J. and Dykova, I. (2005) Microsporidia xenomas in fish seen in a wider perspective (Review). Folia Parasitologica 52, 69 – 81. Lom, J. and Nilsen, F. (2003) Fish Microsporidia: fine structural diversity and phylogeny (Review). International Journal for Parasitology 33, 107 – 127. Lom,   J. (2002) A catalogue of described genera and species of microsporidians parasitic in fish (Review). Systematic Parasitology 53, 81 – 99. Matos, E., Corral, L. and Azevedo, C. (2003) Ultrastructural details of the xenoma of Loma myrophis (phylum Microsporidia) and extrusion of the polar tube during autoinfection. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 54, 203 – 207. Peyghan, R., Nabavi, L., Jamshidi, K. and Akbari, S. (2009) Microsporidian infection in lizardfish, Saurida undosquamis of Persian Gulf. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research, Shiraz University 10(2), 180 – 185. Ralphs, J.R. and Matthews, R.A. (1986) Hepatic microsporidiosis due to Microgemma hepaticus n.g., n.sp. in juvenile grey mullet chelon labrosus. Journal of Fish Diseases 9 (3), 225 – 242. Shaw, R.W. and Kent, M.L. (1999) Fish Microsporidia. In Wittner, M. Weiss, L.M. Editors: The microsporidia and microsporidiosis. Washington, DC: ASM Press, pp 418 – 446. Sprague, V. and Becnel, J.J. (1998) Note on the name-author-date combination for the taxon microsporides Balbiani, 1882, when ranked as a phylum. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 71, 91 – 94. Weiss, LM. (2001) Microsporidia: emerging pathogenic protists. Acta Tropica 78 (2), 89 – 201.

Bill of Rights

In the effort to ratify the Constitution from 1787 to 1788, the Federal father pledged to the state, so the Bill of Rights represents the oath of the United States of America. Many countries have created several conditions for ratification; amendment adjuncts compared to the central government can guarantee that citizens are protected like human rights security measures Integration is a way of protecting these countries It is a means of fundamental command of the people, they themselves are shocked by the center The English Bill of Rights was founded in 1689, the American Bill of Rights was founded in 1789. After a long absence, the American Bill of Rights was influenced by Britain. Let's start with the British Rights Banquet, which was created after the glorious revolution that overturned the King of James II and replaced him with his daughter Mary and her husband, William Orange. The English Bill of Rights in the UK was written by the Special Council and stated the mistake of King James 1, including the permission of free elections, the arrest of peaceful protesters, the application of cruel punishment. The bill also limits the official authority including the right to claim the king, the right to carry weapons, the free election of parliamentarians, freedom of speech by parliamentarians, and any ban on the establishment of the Catholic Church. A church The British Parliament enacted the Bill of Rights in 1689. The Bill of Rights in 1689 provides ordinary parliament, free elections, rules of freedom of speech in parliament, and restrictions on the power of the monarch. Unlike most other European countries (like the 1688 glory revolution) it guarantees that the royal absolute doctrine will not beat. 1707: The first British parliament was formed under federal law 1707 after the merger of the Kingdom of England and the Scottish Kingdom. From 1721 to 1842, Robert Walpole was regarded as the first prime minister of the UK, served as the chairman of the Cabinet Gen eral Assembly, appointed all other ministers, and formulated the theory of unification of the cabinet. In 1689 the Bill of Rights was complemented in England by the Settlement Act of 1701, in Scotland, claims were supplemented by Union Act 1707. The Bill of Rights and the Claims Act seriously contribute to the establishment of the UK. The advantage of Congress, and the reduction of the right of monarchy. They solved the political and religious confusion that impacted Scotland, UK, Ireland mainly in the 17th century. Two main reasons for the legislation and claim right to establish British Constitution Bill of rights The government has moral obligations to serve people and protect their rights, freedom and wealth.The Constitution was enacted to establish a more powerful central government to protect people's rights.The author of the Convention Although it aims at securing the safety of citizen's rights, most modifications are applied to daily life but can not be realized.Right and revision IV protect citizens from unfair search and seizure I will. In 1791, the Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution. The Bill of Rights is the first 10 amendments to our Constitution. The Bill of Rights guarantees certain rights of citizens. These rights include freedom of speech and religion, the right to have weapons, the right to put soldiers at home, and the right to search unfairly. The Bill of Rights limits the power of our government. Therefore, these two documents limit what the government can do. What is the similarity between Magna Carta and Bill of rights? Is there another piece of paper considered to be a two-dimensional object or a three-dimensional object? The UK Human Rights Act and the Bill of Rights have similarities and differences. Both documents guarantee citizen's specific freedom. In our Bill of Rights, some of the rights of citizens, such as freedom of speech and religion, the right to possess weapons, the right to arrange soldiers at home, and rights are guaranteed. To avoid unfair search by the government. These are individual rights The UK Bill of Rights is a legislation that protects specific rights of British citizens from the influence of the king. Subsequently, the Bill of Rights was added to Solution in 1701. Both of these bills help to establish Congress 'sovereignty, give absolute sovereignty to Congress' parliament, and become the best right among all other government agencies. The Bill of Rights also reduced many of the powers of kingdom power. Indeed, the US Bill of Rights is based on the British Rights Bibliography. Bill of Rights In 1791, the Bill of Rights including 10 amendments was approved as a constitution. The purpose of this document is to clarify freedom of those who can not infringe by the government. Many think that this will be necessary, and the Bill of Rights is responsible for two different factions, intense debate among federalists and anti-Federalists. Federalists think that a new alliance should be established by a strong central government and individual local governments. Definition of the English Bill of Rights in 1689 The meaning and definition of the English Bill of Rights in Britain: The English Bill of Rights in 1689 was a British law, passed by the British Parliament in 1689 and declared people's rights and freedoms. After James II was defeated in 1688, William and Mary inherited the 1688 glory revolution. Â ¿ Parliamentary elections and free elections frequently held in 1/2 parliament - Freedom of speech should be enjoyed in Congress - We should not propose troops at peace - we can not collect tax without the authority of Congress - More fine, cruel and unusual punishment The British Parliament enacted the Bill of Rights in 1689. The Bill of Rights in 1689 provides ordinary parliament, free elections, rules of freedom of speech in parliament, and restrictions on the power of the monarch. Unlike most other European countries (like the 1688 glory revolution) it guarantees that the royal absolute doctrine will not beat. 1707: The first British parliament was formed under federal law 1707 after the merger of the Kingdom of England and the Scottish Kingdom. From 1721 to 1842, Robert Walpole was regarded as the first prime minister of the UK, served as the chairman of the Cabinet General Assembly, appointed all other ministers, and formulated the theory of unification of the cabinet. Bill of Rights In 1791, the Bill of Rights including 10 amendments was approved as a constitution. The purpose of this document is to clarify freedom of those who can not infringe by the government. Many think that this will be necessary, and the Bill of Rights is responsible for two different factions, intense debate among federalists and anti-Federalists. Federalists think that a new alliance should be established by a strong central government and individual local governments. Definition of the English Bill of Rights in 1689 The meaning and definition of the English Bill of Rights in Britain: The English Bill of Rights in 1689 was a British law, passed by the British Parliament in 1689 and declared people's rights and freedoms. After James II was defeated in 1688, William and Mary inherited the 1688 glory revolution. Â ¿ Parliamentary elections and free elections frequently held in 1/2 parliament - Freedom of speech should be enjoyed in Congress - We should not propose troops at peace - we can not collect tax without the authority of Congress - More fine, cruel and unusual punishment The British Parliament enacted the Bill of Rights in 1689. The Bill of Rights in 1689 provides ordinary parliament, free elections, rules of freedom of speech in parliament, and restrictions on the power of the monarch. Unlike most other European countries (like the 1688 glory revolution) it guarantees that the royal absolute doctrine will not beat. 1707: The first British parliament was formed under federal law 1707 after the merger of the Kingdom of England and the Scottish Kingdom. From 1721 to 1842, Robert Walpole was regarded as the first prime minister of the UK, served as the chairman of the Cabinet General Assembly, appointed all other ministers, and formulated the theory of unification of the cabinet.

T-Test and Chi-Test Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

T-Test and Chi-Test - Assignment Example It is scientifically proven by Ridley (1999) the fact that men and women are different from each other. And they also differ in their motivational styles. Still, employment agencies will have to disregard the gender when it comes to a job working, so the aim of the employers are to motivate them using different tools that are available for them to use their abilities. The research that was carried out by Wiedner (1998) regarding personality type, etc. presented as determinants of job satisfaction has scrutinized the other factors such as age, educational level, sex, and the part-time and full-time status of the worker. And the one-way analysis of variance has been computed to determine if there are significant differences among the pay satisfaction levels. As the null hypothesis believed that there is no significant difference among the three shift categories. While on the other hand, the alternative hypothesis states that there is significance that exists on at least one of pair. Th is is just the same with the study in Unit 1, but the variance indicates that there is an insignificant difference that the level of education did not have the critical impact on their perception of equity on their perception of equity on pay. Here our finding is that there is a significant relationship in the differences between men and women regarding job satisfaction. As we observe from the first regression. And on the table we made, we have come up with a perfect correlation indicating that we have a positive result. There came the difference between the two regressions. When x and y switch, the result was changed. As the formula was: y = bx+a/y to get they we cross multiply the equation this way y = bx + a.   1 Y Their both sums came to become different and they both contrasts with each other since their composition was changed. They now represent another equation. The conclusion somewhat came to be undecided since it's different to explain both regressions with different dat a in it.

Literature - Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, The Picture of Dorian Gray and The Essay

Literature - Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, The Picture of Dorian Gray and The Time Machine - Essay Example In describing the human experience during the fin de seicle era, sociologist Marshall Berman says â€Å"they are moved at once by a will to change – to transform both themselves and their world – and by a terror of disorientation and disintegration, of life falling apart† (Berman, 1982). Through this statement, it is easy to see the conflicting emotions of an individual experiencing the type of rapid change that has characterized society since this period. As the people living during this period became more familiar with the concepts of Sigmund Freud and the hidden recesses of the mind and the ideas of Charles Darwin and the processes of natural selection and evolution, it became a necessity to examine the beliefs and customs of their inner selves. No longer was the world considered stable so the only center of gravity had to be found within, yet the world within was even more threatening. Many of the old values were shifting as factories rose and cities were bui lt. Women were gaining new freedoms and the old aristocracy, with its life of leisure and waste, was slowly falling into disrepute as enterprising and hard-working individuals from the lower classes began to make names for themselves, building up a middle class that valued work above play and based wealth upon monetary measures rather than the size of one’s property holdings. The resulting clash of values also constituted a meeting between the self and the other, as landed gentry struggled to come to grips with the new boldness of the rising middle class. It was during the fin de seicle era in particular that the question of the inner nature of man and his ultimate direction in life were made the focus of scientific study at the same time that the pace and direction of life were thrown into chaos, explaining this period’s fascination with the concept of the monstrous. The novel The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, written by Robert Louis Stevenson in 1886, presents the ultimate

Sorrow Essay -- Sadness Sorrow

Sorrow   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Whether it is getting a bad grade in English class, leaving home to go to college, or losing a loved one, we all experience sorrow. Sorrow a pain or distress of the mind caused by a loss or misfortune. It is a part of life that we all must learn to deal with. People cope with sorrow in different ways. Certain people let every misfortune that they encounter get to them. They flip out if they get a C on one of the many minute assignments in a class. If they get a traffic ticket, they think the world is coming to the end. People who deal with sorrow like this are not being reasonable. Do these people believe these minor flaws in their day-to-day living are going to have a life long affect on them? They do not have to be sad, but they choose to be.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One day I got my second traffic ticket in my first year of driving. As soon as I looked into my rear view mirror and saw the officer turn on his flashing lights, my heart sank into my stomach. The officer asked if I knew why I was being stopped. I was speeding and I knew it. The officer went back to the car and began to write the ticket, while I was sitting in my car thinking. At first I thought about how much trouble I was going to be in and how much money it was going to cost me. I was very depressed. Then I got to thinking. What's the big deal? It's just a little traffic ticket. Sure, I may get in trouble, but who cares? It's just a small detail in my life. I can whine and complain, or I can foc...

Lord of the Rings: the Ring’s Addiction Essay

â€Å"One ring to rule them all, One ring to find them/ One ring to bring them all and in the darkness blind them/ In the land of Mordor where the shadows lie.† (p. 8) This was said at the beginning of the story telling a brief summary of the ring of Sauron. The poem tells you how the ring will blind you to the point that the need that you will feel of it will be bigger than anything in the world. It will be so big that it becomes an addiction, worse than any drug in the word, because there is no cure for it, and the only way you can save yourself is by the destruction of this powerful ring. Addiction, this is what the ring symbolizes; a psychological need to have something. It changes everything in you. First, it wins you over and then, you will never be the same person. Addiction can change anyone from the best person you have ever known to the worst. It controls and blinds you to the point where you lose yourself. We see this addiction mostly in every character in the story; even the most powerful were tempted by it. In the book we see the addiction of the ring in many different ways throughout many different characters; three of these different ways are: the possession of it, the fear of losing it, and the wanting of it. We first see the change of the characters when they have in possession of it throughout Gollum and Bilbo, then throughout the story we begin to see it in Frodo, but it will grow stronger and stronger every second of every day. Gollum wasn’t always this repulsive creature, but he was a regular hobbit named Smeagol; he was just another victim of the ring. He possessed the ring for approximately five hundred years, and not much of a surprise this ring ruined him fiscally and emotionally. The fist terrible thing he did for the possession of the ring was to kill his brother; then he went to a cave and stood there all alone with only the company of â€Å"his precious†, the ring of Sauron. He turned from this hobbit to an old deformed nasty creature who was kept alive because of the ring, he became a cannibal, he only lived to see that ring every day, and since the first time he saw the ring he was just another slave, another addict to that â€Å"drug†. He now has two sides, Gollum and Smeagol. Gollum was his nasty evil side who was created by the ring and the possession of it for so long, and Smeagol was his still hobbit side which was innocent and in a way bullied and ruled by Gollum; he was a slave in him own body and he couldn’t control himself anymore, because he was loosing sense of who he was. Some may say Gollum is pure evil and deserved to die, like Frodo said at the beginning of the story. We see in the story that Tolkien never referred to Gollum as Smeagol because even though he may fool others and even himself Gollum had evil in him, and that would never change. We also see changes in Bilbo Baggins, but not as big as a change like we see in Smeagol, maybe because Smeagol had it for a longer time and was all alone in a cave for several years. Bilbo’s change wasn’t so big, he had to feel the ring close to him always but he didn’t lose himself as much as Smeagol. This doesn’t change the fact that he was obsessed by the ring. In â€Å"The Fellowship of the Ring† we see Bilbo’s change when Gandalf asks him to leave to ring to Bilbo as he has left everything else, and because of that Bilbo shouts to Gandalf, â€Å"Well, if you want the ring yourself say so! But you won’t get it. I won’t give my Precious away, I tell you.†(p. 34). This is when we see that hint of Gollum in Bilbo, when he calls the ring his Preci ous, a clear sign that he is transforming into Gollum one day at a time. Gandalf was very shocked and got very angry because he could not believe what he heard and how his old friend Bilbo believes he was convincing him to leave the ring for his own pleasure, when he was only trying to convince him so that he would not turn into Gollum or anything near him (but he almost did). He finally left the ring to his nephew, but with Frodo we don’t actually see a change in him throughout these two books but we do see how the ring is temping him to put it on so Sauron can find it, we also see how Frodo is very protective of the ring, such as Bilbo and Gollum, who thought that everyone was going to take it away from them (and sometimes, actually most of the time it was a true feeling). Another change we see because of this addiction is the fear of losing it. Like all Drug addicts, when you don’t have the drug, and you desperately need it you transform into another person who would do anything to have the â€Å"drug† (in this case the ring); again, the best example for this is Gollum who even after losing the ring always followed Frodo through the entire story with the hope of having the chance of taking the ring back so he can again be with â€Å"his preciousâ€Å". In the book we see that in many parts Frodo and others of the company like Gandalf and Strider see a shadow of a creature following them and in time Gandalf explained that it is actually Gollum. He will never accept the fact that the ring is with someone else because he needs it, he needs his drug. Finally the last type of addiction we see is the wanting of the ring. We see this addiction in many characters, even in people in the company of the ring especially in Boromir the general of Gondor. We see the this need of Boromir in taking the ring away from Frodo mostly at the end of the story when he transforms himself into this violent person because he wanted the ring from Frodo supposedly to save his people. Two of the most impressive changes we see in Gandalf and Galadriel, but their wills were strong enough to pass the test and succeed in denying the ring. In Gandalf we see it at the beginning of the story when Frodo was very scared and offers Gandalf this powerful ring. Even though he was very tempted by the ring in the book he said, â€Å"No! With that power I should have power too great and terrible. And over me the ring will gain a power still greater and more deadly† (p. 61). This showed how strong he really was and with this he passed the test. With Galadriel we see it later in the book when Frodo said to her, â€Å"You are wise and fearless and fair, Lady Galadriel. I will give you the one ring if you ask for it.† (p. 365). After this she explains that her heart desires the ring very much and now she is being offered it freely by Frodo and then she said, â€Å"†¦And I shall not be dark, but beautiful and terrible as the morning and the night! Fair as the sea and the sun and the snow upon the mountain! Dreadful as the storm and the lightning! Stronger than the foundations of the earth. All shall love me and despair.†(p. 365). She transformed herself as the ring was trying to control her, but she managed to control the urge of having the most powerful ring and passed the test. An addict can only save himself with the elimination of the drug and a strong will power to continue without it; this also applies to this powerful ring of Sauron; the only way to overcome this wanting is to have these qualities and much more. Because the ring is so powerful one person alone cannot succeed in destroying it, this is why the company of the ring was created. Throughout the story many people wanted Frodo to fail just so they could get the ring, this was how strong the addiction was, but there would always be those who their will power was strong enough to succeed, and those few are the ones who will accompany you to the end; these few are a need in adventures like this, because the ring is so powerful that one person alone cannot do the job. In this case it was Samwise Gamgee who told Frodo in the story when he was planning to leave, â€Å"†¦All alone and without me to help you? I couldn’t have a borne it, it’s have been the death of me.†(p.406). T he little hobbit demonstrated how friendship can overcome any addiction in the world and that with the help of a true friend we can overcome every struggle and every blinding need that we would ever have. References: Tolkien J.R.R. (2005). The Lord of the Rings (50th anniversary). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Our Individual Identity Is Determined by What Others Think...

Identity and belonging - Expository Essay Our individual identity is determined by what others think of us. Our identity is comprised of inner qualities and outer representations of self. It consists of innumerable defining characteristics that make up the whole of who we are in any given moment. These fragments of self include our sexuality, gender, and sense of belonging to a particular culture, nation, religion, family, or some other group. Our identity includes our looks, personality, beliefs and fears. Each individual in society assigns themselves a particular role, whether it be as a mother, brother, retiree, performer, sportsman or as a part of their occupation, a doctor or lawyer. Often one’s entire sense of self is consumed by†¦show more content†¦Today more than ever we are being increasingly conditioned, influenced and bombarded by a multitude of messages and experiences about who to be and how to be. Current forms of social communication processes, particularly mainstream media, advertising, television and film, along with family, friends, teachers, political ag endas, religion, society’s rules, our perceptions, perspectives, interpretations and assumptions, and those of others, all play a part in creating our identity. †¨We seek and create our identity through these external influences, we all wear these masks and cloaks, so that we fit in with the world around us. The degree to which we choose our identity, versus having it imposed on us via external influence, is arguably a matter of consciousness and awareness. When we are unaware of the power of external influence we are akin to pieces of clay, being unconsciously molded to fit into the accepted or preferred norms of someone else’s reality. When we are aware we can take responsibility for the creation of our identity. 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